Normalisation
Data & DatabasesStoring each fact in exactly one place.
Structuring tables so a customer email lives once and everything else points at it. Changing it is then one edit rather than a thousand. Deliberately duplicating for read speed is denormalisation, and you own keeping the copies in step.
See also Foreign key, Join
NoSQL
Data & DatabasesDatabases that are not table-and-row relational.
A loose family including document, key-value and graph stores. Flexible shape and easier extreme scale, at the cost that nothing prevents two records disagreeing about structure. The schema does not disappear; it moves into your code.
See also SQL, Document store, Schema